COVID-19: A brief overview of diagnosis and treatment
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56511/JIPBS.2020.v7.i03.pp21-38Abstract
In late December 2019, several pneumonia cases caused due to 2019-nCoV were reported in Wuhan, China. The disease caused by this novel virus was termed as Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) by WHO on the 11 February, 2020. The outbreak of COVID-19 has spread to more than 150 countries with over 12,552,765 confirmed cases and over 561,617confirmed deaths worldwide as of July 12, 2020. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and WHO have declared COVID- 19 as a global emergency affecting multiple countries and has made provisions to meet the requirements across the globe addressing the disease. The current review systematically summarizes the overview of the current status of COVID-19 across the globe along with the virulence characteristics of the pathogen, diagnostic approaches, the recent trends in diagnosis, therapeutics under study, and approved therapies for the treatment of the disease. A short summary of all the ongoing work in India, with respect to technologies to combat COVID-19 have been discussed in brief herein. This concise study shall be helpful for the future researchers with the updated knowledge on COVID- 19
Keywords:
SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, pandemic, diagnosis, respiratory disease, therapy, Drug evaluation historyDownloads
References
Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, et al. The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health — The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 91:264 – 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid. 2020.01.009.
Burki TK. Coronavirus in China. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8:238. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30056-4.
Sohrabi C, Alsafi Z, O‘Neill N, Khan M, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A, et al. World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int J Surg 2020; 76:71 – 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034 .
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res 2020; 24:91 – 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare. 2020.03.005.
Gorbalenya AE, Baker SC, Baric RS, de Groot RJ, Drosten C, Gulyaeva AA, et al. The species Severe acute respiratory syndromerelated coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARSCoV-2. Nat Microbiol 2020; 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-0200695-z.
Li X, Geng M, Peng Y, Meng L, Lu S. Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19. J Pharm Anal 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpha.2020.03.001.
Cucinotta D, Vanelli M. WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic. Acta Biomed 2020; 91:157 – 60. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i1.9397.
Han Q, Lin Q, Jin S, You L. Coronavirus 2019-nCoV: A brief perspective from the front line. J. Infect 2020; 80:373 – 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.010.
Liu Y, Gayle AA, Wilder-Smith A, Rocklöv J. The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus. J Travel Med 2020; 27:1 – 6. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa021.
Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, et al. Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:490 – 502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2016.03. 003.
Peiris JSM, Guan Y, Yuen KY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Nat Med 2004; 10:S88 – 97. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1143.
Zaki AM, Van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus ADME, Fouchier RAM. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:1814 – 20. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1211721.
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 2020; 395:565 – 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8.
Li G, De Clercq E. Therapeutic options for the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) 2020; 19:149 – 50. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41573-02000016-0.
Chan JFW, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KKW, Yuan S, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9:221 – 36. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 22221751.2020.1719902.
Zumla A, Chan JFW, Azhar EI, Hui DSC, Yuen KY. Coronavirusesdrug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2016; 15:327 – 47. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2015.37.
Li F, Li W, Farzan M, Harrison SC. Structure of SARS coronavirus spike receptor-binding domain complexed with receptor. Science (80-) 2005; 309:1864 – 8. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1116480.
Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. Receptor Recognition by the Novel Coronavirus from Wuhan: an Analysis Based on DecadeLong Structural Studies of SARS Coronavirus. J Virol 2020; 94:1 – 9. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.00127-20.
Chen Y, Guo Y, Pan Y, Zhao ZJ. Structure analysis of the receptor binding of 2019-nCoV. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 525:135 – 40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.02.071.
Hu TY, Frieman M, Wolfram J. Insights from nanomedicine into chloroquine efficacy against COVID-19. Nat Nanotechnol 2019; 19 –
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0674-9.
Liu C, Zhou Q, Li Y, Garner L V, Watkins SP, Carter LJ, et al. Research and Development on Therapeutic Agents and Vaccines for COVID-19 and Related Human Coronavirus Diseases 2020. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.0c00272.
Taghizadeh-hesary F, Akbari H. The powerful immune system against powerful COVID-19: A hypothesis. Med Hypotheses J 2020; 140:1 – 3.
Astuti I, Ysrafil. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): An overview of viral structure and host response. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev 2020; 14:407 – 12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.020.
Dhama K, Patel SK, Pathak M, Yatoo MI, Tiwari R, Malik YS, et al. An update on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 with particular reference to its clinical pathology, pathogenesis, immunopathology and mitigation strategies. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020; 101755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101755.
Chauhan S. Comprehensive review of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Biomed J 2020; 1 – 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bj.2020. 05.023.
Harapan H, Itoh N, Yufika A, Winardi W, Keam S, Te H, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A literature review. J Infect Public Health 2020; 13:667 – 73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020. 03.019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Evaluating and Testing Persons for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/hcp/clinical-criteria. html (accessed April 6, 2020).
World Heath Organization. Laboratory testing for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in suspected human cases 2020; 1 – 7.
World Heath Organization. WHO and FIND formalize strategic collaboration to drive universal access to essential diagnostics 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/10-02-2020-who-and-findformalize-strategic-collaboration-to-drive-universal-access-toessential-diagnostics (accessed April 6, 2020).
Department of Health and Human Services PHE. Notice of Declaration under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act for medical countermeasures against COVID-19 2020. https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/legal/prepact/Pages/COVID19.asp x (accessed April 4, 2020).
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Determination of a Public Health Emergency and Declaration that Circumstances Exist Justifying Authorizations Pursuant to Section 564(b) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. § 360bbb-3 . 2020:1 – 8.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim Guidelines for Collecting, Handling, and Testing Clinical Specimens from Persons for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/guidelines-clinicalspecimens. html (accessed April 6, 2020).
Shen M, Zhou Y, Ye J, Al-maskri AAA, Kang Y, Zeng S. Recent advances and perspectives of nucleic acid detection for coronavirus. J Pharm Anal 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpha.2020.02.010.
Global Biotech Insights. The Worldwide Test for Covid-19 2020. https://www.globalbiotechinsights.com/articles/20247/the-worldwidetest-for-covid-19 (accessed April 6, 2020).
Zhai P, Ding Y, Wu X, Long J, Zhong Y, Li Y. The epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020:105955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105955.
Notomi T, Okayama H, Masubuchi H, Yonekawa T, Watanabe K, Amino N, et al. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA 2000; 28.
Lamb LE, Bartolone SN, Ward E, Chancellor MB. Rapid Detection of Novel Coronavirus (COVID19) by Reverse Transcription-LoopMediated Isothermal Amplification. SSRN Electron J 2020. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3539654.
Huang P, Wang H, Cao Z, Jin H, Chi H, Zhao J. A Rapid and Specific Assay for the Detection of MERS-CoV. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1 – 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01101.
Winichakoon P, Chaiwarith R, Liwsrisakun C, Salee P, Goonna A, Limsukon A, et al. Negative Nasopharyngeal and Oropharyngeal Swabs Do Not Rule Out COVID-19. J Clin Microbiol 2020; 58:19 – 20. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00297-20.
Tahamtan A, Ardebili A. Real-time RT-PCR in COVID-19 detection : issues affecting the results. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2020; 20:453 – 4. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737159.2020.1757437.
West CP, Montori VM, Sampathkumar P. COVID-19 Testing: The Threat of False-Negative Results. Mayo Clin Proc 2020; 95:1127 – 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.04.004.
Liu H, Liu F, Li J, Zhang T, Wang D, Lan W. Clinical and CT imaging features of the COVID-19 pneumonia: Focus on pregnant women and children. J Infect 2020; 1 – 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf. 2020.03.007.
Huang, Peikai; Liu, Tianzhu; Huang, Lesheng; Liu Hailong; Lei Ming; Xu, Wangdong; Hu, Xiaolu; Chen, Jun; Liu B. Use of Chest CT in Combination with Negative RT-PCR Assay for the 2019 Novel Coronavirus but High Clinical Suspicion. Radiology 2020; 295:22 – 23. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
Xie, Xingzhi; Zhong, Zheng;Zha, Wei; Zheng, Chao;Wang, Fei ; Liu J. Chest CT for Typical 2019-nCoV Pneumonia: Relationship to Negative RT-PCR Testing Xingzhi. Radiology 2019. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200343.
Zhou M. Temporal Changes of CT Findings in 90 Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Longitudinal Study 2020.
Yang T, Wang Y-C, Shen C-F, Cheng C-M. Point-of-Care RNABased Diagnostic Device for COVID-19. Diagnostics 2020; 10:165. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics10030165.
Franzén M. BLUE PAPER : Covid-19 quick-test. 2020. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/jpukc.
Richardson ERH. COVID-19 Detection in under 20minsIceni Diagnostics Offers New Approach 2020:1 – 3.
Johns Hopkins Center of Health Security. Serology testing for COVID-19. 2020.
Tang A, Md X, Gao C, Zhang S. Profile of Specific Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2: The First Report. J Infect 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.012.
Xiang J, Yan M, Li H, Liu T, Lin C, Huang S, et al. Evaluation of Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay and Colloidal GoldImmunochromatographic Assay Kit for Detection of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2) Causing an Outbreak of Pneumonia (COVID-19). MedRxiv 2020:2020.02.27.20028787. https://doi.org/ 10.1101/2020.02.27.20028787.
Hui Z, Xu C, Fan J, Tang Y, Deng Q, Zhang W, et al. Antibodies in Infants Born to Mothers With COVID-19 Pneumonia. Jama 2020. https://doi.org/10.1038/2101070a0.
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Determination of a Public Health Emergency and Declaration that Circumstances Exist Justifying Authorizations Pursuant to Section 564(b) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. § 360bbb-3. 2020.
Cellex Inc. HCP Fact Sheet. 2020.
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395:507 – 13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7.
Lai AL, Millet JK, Daniel S, Freed JH, Whittaker GR. C-reactive protein levels in the early stage of COVID-19 L. Médecine Mal Infect 2020:19 – 20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medmal.2020.03. 007.
Fan BE, Chong VCL, Chan SSW, Lim GH, Lim KGE, Tan GB, et al. Hematologic parameters in patients with COVID-19 infection. Am J Hematol 2020:1 – 4. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.25774.
China national Health Commission. Chinese Cinical Guidance forCOVID-19 -Pneumonia Diagnosis and Treatment (7th edition). 2020.
Parhizgar AR, Tahghighi A. Introducing New Antimalarial Analogues of Chloroquine and Amodiaquine : A Narrative Review 2017; 42.
Devaux CA, Rolain J, Colson P, Raoult D. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020:105938. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105938.
Boelaert JR, Piette J, Sperber K. The potential place of chloroquine in the treatment of HIV-1-infected patients. J Clin Virol 2001; 20:137 –
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1386-6532(00)00140-2.
Savarino A, Gennero L, Sperber K, Boelaert JR. The anti-HIV-1 activity of chloroquine. J Clin Virol 2001; 20:131 – 5. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S1386-6532(00)00139-6.
Mizui T, Yamashina S, Tanida I, Takei Y, Ueno T, Sakamoto N, et al. Inhibition of hepatitis C virus replication by chloroquine targeting virus-associated autophagy. J Gastroenterol 2010; 45:195 – 203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00535-009-0132-9.
Bartholomeusz A, Locarnini S. Associated With Antiviral Therapy. Antivir Ther 2006; 55:52 – 5. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.
De Lamballerie X, Boisson V, Reynier JC, Enault S, Charrel RN, Flahault A, et al. On chikungunya acute infection and chloroquine treatment. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2008; 8:837 – 9. https://doi.org/ 10.1089/vbz.2008.0049.
Farias KJS, Machado PRL, de Almeida Junior RF, de Aquino AA, da Fonseca BAL. Chloroquine interferes with dengue-2 virus replication in U937 cells. Microbiol Immunol 2014; 58:318 – 26. https://doi.org/10.1111/1348-0421.12154.
Dowall SD, Bosworth A, Watson R, Bewley K, Taylor I, Rayner E, et al. Chloroquine inhibited ebola virus replication in vitro but failed to protect against infection and disease in the in vivo guinea pig model. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:3484 – 92. https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.000309.
Koyama AH, Uchida T. Inhibition of multiplication of herpes simplex virus type 1 by ammonium chloride and chloroquine. Virology 1984; 138:332 – 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6822(84)90356-8.
Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S. A systematic review on the ef fi cacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. J Crit Care 2020:3 – 7. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005.
Colson P, Rolain J, Lagier J, Brouqui P, Raoult D, Publique A, et al. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine as available weapons to fight COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55. https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.ijantimicag.2020.105932.
Singh AK, Singh A, Shaikh A, Singh R, Misra A. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of COVID-19 with or without diabetes: A systematic search and a narrative review with a special reference to India and other developing countries. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.03.011.
Touret F, Lamballerie X De. Of chloroquine and COVID-19. Antiviral Res 2020;177:104762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104762.
Gautret P, Lagier J-C, Parola P, Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Mailhe M, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID19: results of an openlabel non-randomized clinical trial 2020:105949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949.
Alexandra S, Devaux C, Colson P, Raoult D, Rolain J. Teicoplanin : an alternative drug for the treatment of COVID-19 ? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 2:105944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020. 105944.
Zhou N, Pan T, Zhang J, Li Q, Zhang X, Bai C, et al. Glycopeptide antibiotics potently inhibit cathepsin l in the late endosome/lysosome and block the entry of ebola virus, middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). J Biol Chem 2016; 291:9218 – 32. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M116.716100.
Zhang J, Ma X, Yu1 F, Liu J, Zou F, Pan T, et al. Teicoplanin potently blocks the cell entry of 2019-nCoV. BioRxiv 2020.
Tan D, Hardeland R. Potential utility of melatonin in deadly infectious diseases related to the overreaction of innate immune response and destructive inflammation : focus on COVID-19 2020; 3:120 – 43. https://doi.org/10.32794/mr11250052.
Reiter RJ, Ma Q, Sharma R. Treatment of Ebola and other infectious diseases : melatonin ―goes viral‖ 2020; 3:43 – 57. https://doi.org/ 10.32794/mr11250047.
Amirian ES, Levy JK. Current knowledge about the antivirals remdesivir (GS-5734) and GS441524 as therapeutic options for coronaviruses. One Heal 2020; 9:100128. https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.onehlt.2020.100128.
Al-tawfiq JA, Al-homoud AH, Memish ZA. Remdesivir as a possible therapeutic option for the COVID-19. Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 101615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101615.
Ko W, Rolain J, Lee N, Chen P, Huang C. Arguments in favour of remdesivir for treating SARS-CoV-2 infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 105933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020. 105933.
Delang L, Abdelnabi R, Neyts J. Favipiravir as a potential countermeasure against neglected and emerging RNA viruses. Antiviral Res 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.03.003.
Furuta Y, Komeno T, Nakamura T. Favipiravir (T-705), a broad spectrum inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase 2017; 93.
Dong L, Hu S, Gao J. Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) 2020; 14:58 – 60. https://doi.org/10.5582/ddt.2020. 01012.
Yang N, Shen H. Targeting the Endocytic Pathway and Autophagy Process as a Novel Therapeutic Strategy in COVID-19 2020; 16. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.45498.
Caly L, Druce JD, Catton MG, Jans DA, Wagstaff KM. The FDAapproved Drug Ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antiviral Res 2020; 104787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral. 2020.104787.
Liu F, Xu A, Zhang Y, Xuan W, Yan T, Pan K, et al. Patients of COVID-19 may benefit from sustained lopinavir-combined regimen and the increase of eosinophil may predict the outcome of COVID-19 progression. Int J Infect Dis 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020. 03.013.
Zhu S, Guo X, Geary K, Zhang D. Emerging Therapeutic Strategies for COVID-19 Patients 2020; 8:1 – 5. https://doi.org/10.15190/d.2020. 2.
Dutta K, Shityakov S, Morozova O, Khalifa I, Zhang J, Zhu W, et al. Beclabuvir can inhibit the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of newly emerged novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) 2020; 1 – 20. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202003.0395.v2.
Wang, Manli, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 2020; 3:269 – 71. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0.
Chen J, Hu C, Chen L, Tang L, Zhu Y, Xu X, et al. Clinical Study of Mesenchymal Stem Cell Treatment for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Induced by Epidemic Influenza A ( H7N9 ) Infection : A Hint for COVID-19 Treatment. Engineering 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2020.02.006.
Shanmugaraj B, Siriwattananon K, Wangkanont K, Phoolcharoen W. Perspectives on monoclonal antibody therapy as potential therapeutic intervention for Coronavirus disease-19 ( COVID-19 ). Asian Pacific J Allergy Immunol 2020.
Zhou G, Zhao Q. Perspectives on therapeutic neutralizing antibodies against the Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 2020; 16. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.45123.
Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS. Angiotensin ‑ converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS ‑ CoV ‑ 2 receptor : molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med 2020; 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05985-9.
Kruse RL. Therapeutic strategies in an outbreak scenario to treat the novel coronavirus originating in Wuhan, China. F1000Research 2020; 9:72. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.22211.1.
Jean S, Lee P, Hsueh P. Treatment options for COVID-19 : the reality and challenges. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.034.
Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, et al. Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19 with Convalescent Plasma. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc 2020:1 – 8. https://doi.org/10.1001 /jama.2020.4783.
Chen L, Xiong J, Bao L, Shi Y. Convalescent plasma as a potential therapy for COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20:398 – 400. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30141-9.
Mancia G, Rea F, Ph D, Ludergnani M, Sc M, Apolone G, et al. Renin – Angiotensin – Aldosterone System Blockers and the Risk of Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382:2431 – 40. https://doi.org /10.1056/NEJMoa2006923.
Quinn KL, Fralick M, Zipursky JS, Stall NM. Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone system inhibitors and COVID-19. CMAJ 2020; 192:553 –
https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.200619.
Abajo FJ De, Rodríguez-martín S, Lerma V, Mejía-abril G, Aguilar M, García-luque A, et al. Use of renin – angiotensin – aldosterone system inhibitors and risk of COVID-19 requiring admission to hospital : a case-population study. Lancet 2020; 395:1705 – 14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31030-8.
Arshad MS, Khan U, Sadiq A, Khalid W, Hussain M, Yasmeen A, et al. Coronavirus disease (COVID ‐ 19) and immunity booster green foods: A mini review. Food Sci Nutr 2020; 1 – 6. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/fsn3.1719.
Kim SB, Yeom JS. Reply: Vitamin C as a Possible Therapy for COVID-19. Infect Chemother 2020; 52:222 – 3.
Alipio M. Vitamin D Supplementation Could Possibly Improve Clinical Outcomes of Patients Infected with Coronavirus-2019 (COVID-2019). SSRN Electron J 2020; 2019:1 – 9. https://doi.org/ 10.2139/ssrn.3571484.
Gina A, Eubanas S, Epi DC. Should B Vitamins be used in the treatment of COVID-19? Asia Pacific Cent Evid Based Healthc 2020; 54:1 – 4. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005978.pub3.2.
te Velthuis AJW, van den Worml SHE, Sims AC, Baric RS, Snijder EJ, van Hemert MJ. Zn2+ inhibits coronavirus and arterivirus RNA polymerase activity in vitro and zinc ionophores block the replication of these viruses in cell culture. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1001176.
Ayush Ministry. Ayurveda‘s immunity boosting measures for self care during COVID 19 crisis. 2020.
Khanal P, Duyu T, Dey YN, Patil BM, Pasha I, Wanjari M. Network Pharmacology of AYUSH Recommended Immune-boosting Medicinal Plants Against COVID-19. Res Sq 2020:1 – 12. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-31776/v1.
Cipla, (2020, June 21). Cipla launches Cipremi (remdesivir lyophilised powder for injection 100 mg), the only U.S. FDA approved Emergency Use Authorisation (EUA) treatment for patients with severe COVID-19 disease [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.cipla.com/press-releases-statements/cipla-launchescipremi-remdesivirlyophilised-powder-injection-100-mg
Biocon, (2020, July 11) Biocon‘s Breakthrough Drug Itolizumab Receives DCGI Nod for its Use in Moderate to Severe COVID-19 Patients; Drug to Save Many Lives [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.biocon.com/biocon_press_release_20200711.asp.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2020 Durgesh K. Jha, Devanshi S. Shah, Sharda Gurram, Purnima D. Amin
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Journal of Innovations in Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Based on a work at