Nephrolithiasis: A Comprehensive Review of Pathophysiology, Clinical Presentation, and Management
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56511/JIPBS.2026.13110Abstract
Nephrolithiasis affects approximately 12% of the global population with increasing prevalence linked to obesity, metabolic syndrome, and dietary factors. Calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones comprise 70–80% of cases, followed by uric acid (10–15%), struvite (10–15%), and cystine stones (<1%). Stone formation involves complex physicochemical processes including supersaturation, nucleation, crystal growth, and retention, with Randall's plaque serving as a critical nucleation site. Clinical presentation typically includes severe colicky pain, hematuria, and urinary symptoms, though asymptomatic cases occur. Non-contrast helical CT represents the diagnostic gold standard with 98% sensitivity. Management has evolved from open surgery to minimally invasive approaches including extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Medical expulsive therapy with alpha-blockers facilitates spontaneous passage of ureteral stones ≤5 mm. Prevention strategies emphasize adequate hydration (≥2 L/day), dietary modifications including normal calcium intake with sodium restriction, and pharmacological interventions such as thiazide diuretics and potassium citrate based on stone composition and metabolic abnormalities. Emerging evidence demonstrates strong associations between metabolic syndrome components—obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia—and increased nephrolithiasis risk, highlighting the importance of comprehensive metabolic evaluation and lifestyle modifications in preventing recurrence. Understanding these multifactorial aspects enables individualized treatment approaches and reduces the 50% recurrence rate observed within 5–10 years
Keywords:
Nephrolithiasis, Urolithiasis, Kidney Stones, Calcium Oxalate, Ureteroscopy, PCNL, Metabolic Syndrome, Stone PreventionDownloads
References
Hall, P. M. Nephrolithiasis: Treatment, Causes, and Prevention. Cleve. Clin. J. Med. 2009, 76 (10), 583 – 591.
Romero, V.; Akpinar, H.; Assimos, D. G. Kidney Stones: A Global Picture of Prevalence, Incidence, and Associated Risk Factors. Rev. Urol. 2010, 12 (2 – 3), e86 – e96.
Johnson, C. M.; Wilson, D. M.; O'Fallon, W. M.; Malek, R. S.; Kurland, L. T. Renal Stone Epidemiology: A 25 - Year Study in Rochester, Minnesota. Kidney Int. 1979, 16, 624 – 631.
Stamatelou, K. K.; Francis, M. E.; Jones, C. A.; Nyberg, L. M.; Curhan, G. C. Time Trends in Reported Prevalence of Kidney Stones in the United States: 1976 – 1994. Kidney Int. 2003, 63, 1817 – 1823.
Antonelli, J. A.; Maalouf, N. M.; Pearle, M. S.; Lotan, Y. Use of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to Calculate the Impact of Obesity and Diabetes on Cost and Prevalence of Urolithiasis in 2030. Eur. Urol. 2014, 66 (4), 724 – 729.
Hiatt, R. A.; Dales, L. G.; Friedman, G. D.; Hunkeler, E. M. Frequency of Urolithiasis in a Prepaid Medical Care Program. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1982, 115, 255 – 265.
Lancina Martin, J. A.; Rodriguez - Rivera, G. J.; Novas Castro, S.; Rodriguez Gomez, I.; Fernandez Rosado, E.; Alvarez Castelo, L. Metabolic Risk Factors in Calcium Urolithiasis According to Gender and Age of the Patients. Actas Urol. Esp. 2002, 26, 111 – 120.
Morse, R. M.; Resnick, M. I. Ureteral Calculi: Natural History and Treatment in the Era of Advanced Technology. J. Urol. 1991, 145, 263 – 265.
Glowacki, L. S.; Beecroft, M. L.; Cook, R. J.; Pahl, D.; Churchill, D. N. The Natural History of Asymptomatic Urolithiasis. J. Urol. 1992, 147, 319 – 321.
Trinchieri, A.; Coppi, F.; Montanari, E.; Del Nero, A.; Zanetti, G.; Pisani, E. Increase in the Prevalence of Symptomatic Upper Urinary Tract Stones During the Last Ten Years. Eur. Urol. 2000, 37, 23 – 25.
Colobawalla, B. N. Incidence of Urolithiasis in India. ICMR Tech. Rep. Ser. 1971, 8, 42 – 51.
Buchholz, N. P. N.; Abbas, F.; Afzal, M.; Khan, R.; Rizvi, I.; Talati, J. The Prevalence of Silent Kidney Stones — An Ultrasonographic Screening Study. J. Pak. Med. Assoc. 2003, 53 (1), 24 – 25.
Fetter, T. L.; Zimskind, P. D. Statistical Analysis of Patients With Urinary Calculi. JAMA 1961, 186, 21.
Dinakar, N.; Shaik, A.; Reddy, N. R.; Swathi, M. A Clinical Study on the Presentation and Management of Urolithiasis. Int. Surg. J. 2024, 11 (3), 1215 – 1222.
Lieske, J. C.; Peña de la Vega, L. S.; Slezak, J. M.; Bergstralh, E. J.; Leibson, C. L.; Ho, K. L.; Gettman, M. T. Renal Stone Epidemiology in Rochester, Minnesota: An Update. Kidney Int. 2006, 69, 760 – 764.
Knoll, T.; Schubert, A. B.; Fahlenkamp, D.; Leusmann, D. B.; Wendt - Nordahl, G.; Schubert, G. Urolithiasis Through the Ages: Data on More Than 200,000 Urinary Stone Analyses. J. Urol. 2011, 185 (4), 1304 – 1311.
Taylor, E. N.; Curhan, G. C. Diet and Fluid Prescription in Stone Disease. Kidney Int. 2006, 70, 835 – 839.
Borghi, L.; Meschi, T.; Amato, F.; Briganti, A.; Novarini, A.; Giannini, A. Urinary Volume, Water and Recurrences in Idiopathic Calcium Nephrolithiasis: A 5 - Year Randomized Prospective Study. J. Urol. 1996, 155, 839 – 843.
Parks, J. H.; Coe, F. L.; Evan, A. P.; Worcester, E. M. Clinical and Laboratory Characteristics of Calcium Stone - Formers With and Without Primary Hyperparathyroidism. Br. J. Urol. 2008, 103, 670 – 678.
Danpure, C. J.; Rumsby, G. Molecular Aetiology of Primary Hyperoxaluria and Its Implications for Clinical Management. Expert Rev. Mol. Med. 2004, 6, 1 – 16.
Evan, A. P. Physiopathology and Etiology of Stone Formation in the Kidney and the Urinary Tract. Pediatr. Nephrol. 2010, 25, 831 – 841.
Griffith, D. P.; Osborne, C. A. Infection (Urease) Stones. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 1987, 13, 278 – 285.
Bichler, K. H.; Eipper, E.; Naber, K.; Braun, V.; Zimmermann, R.; Lahme, S. Urinary Infection Stones. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2002, 19, 488 – 498.
Taylor, E. N.; Stampfer, M. J.; Curhan, G. C. Obesity, Weight Gain, and the Risk of Kidney Stones. JAMA 2005, 293, 455 – 462.
Abdulla, A.; Das, S.; Venugopalan, A. V.; Rajeevan, A. T.; Manikandan, M. The Correlation Between Metabolic Syndrome and Calcium Urolithiasis. Int. Surg. J. 2023, 10 (9), 1477 – 1483.
Coe, F. L.; Evan, A.; Worcester, E. Kidney Stone Disease. J. Clin. Invest. 2005, 115 (10), 2598 – 2608.
Coe, F. L.; Parks, J. H.; Bushinsky, D. A.; Langman, C. B.; Favus, M. J. Chlorthalidone Promotes Mineral Retention in Patients With Idiopathic Hypercalciuria. Kidney Int. 1988, 33, 1140 – 1146.
Evan, A. P.; Lingeman, J. E.; Coe, F. L.; Parks, J. H.; Bledsoe, S. B.; Shao, Y.; Sommer, A. J.; Paterson, R. F.; Kuo, R. L.; Grynpas, M. Randall's Plaque of Patients With Nephrolithiasis Begins in Basement Membranes of Thin Loops of Henle. J. Clin. Invest. 2003, 111, 607 – 616.
Broadus, A. E.; Horst, R. L.; Lang, R.; Littledike, E. T.; Rasmussen, H. The Importance of Circulating 1,25 - Dihydroxyvitamin D in the Pathogenesis of Hypercalciuria and Renal - Stone Formation in Primary Hyperparathyroidism. N. Engl. J. Med. 1980, 302, 421 – 426.
Breslau, N. A.; Preminger, G. M.; Adams, B. V.; Otey, J.; Pak, C. Y. Use of Ketoconazole to Probe the Pathogenetic Importance of 1,25 - Dihydroxyvitamin D in Absorptive Hypercalciuria. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1992, 75, 1446 – 1452.
Borghi, L.; Schianchi, T.; Meschi, T.; Guerra, A.; Allegri, F.; Maggiore, U.; Novarini, A. Comparison of Two Diets for the Prevention of Recurrent Stones in Idiopathic Hypercalciuria. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 346, 77 – 84.
Pak, C. Y. C.; Sakhaee, K.; Peterson, R. D.; Poindexter, J. R.; Frawley, W. H. Biochemical Profile of Idiopathic Uric Acid Nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 2001, 60 (2), 757 – 761.
Kamel, K. S.; Cheema - Dhadli, S.; Halperin, M. L. Studies on the Pathophysiology of the Low Urine pH in Patients With Uric Acid Stones. Kidney Int. 2002, 61, 988 – 994.
Abate, N.; Chandalia, M.; Cabo - Chan, A. V., Jr.; Moe, O. W.; Sakhaee, K. The Metabolic Syndrome and Uric Acid Nephrolithiasis: Novel Features of Renal Manifestation of Insulin Resistance. Kidney Int. 2004, 65, 386 – 392.
Zarse, C. A.; McAteer, J. A.; Tann, M.; Sommer, A. J.; Kim, S. C.; Paterson, R. F.; Hatt, E. K.; Lingeman, J. E.; Evan, A. P.; Williams, J. C., Jr. Helical Computed Tomography Accurately Reports Urinary Stone Composition Using Attenuation Values: In Vitro Verification Using High - Resolution Micro - Computed Tomography Calibrated to Fourier Transform Infrared Microspectroscopy. Urology 2004, 63, 828 – 833.
Sakhaee, K. Pathogenesis and Medical Management of Cystinuria. Semin. Nephrol. 1996, 16, 435 – 447.
Silverman, D. E.; Stamey, T. A. Management of Infection Stones: The Stanford Experience. Medicine (Baltimore) 1983, 62, 44 – 51.
Jennis, F. S.; Lavan, J. N.; Neale, F. C.; Posen, S. Staghorn Calculi of the Kidney: Clinical, Bacteriological and Biochemical Features. Br. J. Urol. 1970, 42, 511 – 518.
Griffith, D. P. Struvite Stones. Kidney Int. 1978, 13, 372 – 382.
Griffith, D. P.; Gibson, J. R.; Clinton, C. W.; Musher, D. M. Acetohydroxamic Acid: Clinical Studies of a Urease Inhibitor in Patients With Staghorn Renal Calculi. J. Urol. 1978, 119, 9 – 15.
Moe, O. W. Kidney Stones: Pathophysiology and Medical Management. Lancet 2006, 367 (9507), 333 – 344.
Courbebaisse, M.; Prot - Bertoye, C.; Bertocchio, J. P.; Lefevre, G.; Daudon, M.; Prie, D. Nephrolithiasis of Adult: From Mechanisms to Preventive Medical Treatment. Presse Med. 2017, 46 (1), 44 – 52.
Robertson, W. G.; Peacock, M.; Marshall, R. W.; Marshall, D. H.; Nordin, B. E. Saturation - Inhibition Index as a Measure of the Risk of Calcium Oxalate Stone Formation in the Urinary Tract. N. Engl. J. Med. 1976, 294, 249 – 252.
Sakhaee, K.; Maalouf, N. M. Metabolic Syndrome and Uric Acid Nephrolithiasis. Semin. Nephrol. 2008, 28 (2), 174 – 180.
Coe, F. L.; Parks, J. H. Pathogenesis and Treatment of Nephrolithiasis. In The Kidney; Brenner, B. M., Rector, F. C., Eds.; W.B. Saunders: Philadelphia, PA, 2000; pp 1841 – 1867.
Lieske, J. C.; Swift, H.; Martin, T.; Patterson, B.; Toback, F. G. Renal Epithelial Cells Rapidly Bind and Internalize Calcium Oxalate Monohydrate Crystals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1994, 91 (15), 6987 – 6991.
Evan, A. P.; Lingeman, J. E.; Coe, F. L.; Shao, Y.; Miller, N. L.; Matlaga, B. R.; Phillips, C. L.; Sommer, A. J.; Worcester, E. M. Crystal - Associated Nephropathy in Patients With Brushite Nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 2005, 67, 576 – 591.
Kuo, R. L.; Lingeman, J. E.; Evan, A. P.; Paterson, R. F.; Parks, J. H.; Bledsoe, S. B.; Munch, L. C.; Coe, F. L. Urine Calcium and Volume Predict Coverage of Renal Papilla by Randall's Plaque. Kidney Int. 2003, 64, 2150 – 2154.
Evan, A. P.; Coe, F. L.; Lingeman, J. E.; Worcester, E. Insights on the Pathology of Kidney Stone Formation. Urol. Res. 2005, 33, 383 – 389.
Alelign, T.; Petros, B. Kidney Stone Disease: An Update on Current Concepts. Adv. Urol. 2018, 2018, 3068365.
Fink, H. A.; Akornor, J. W.; Garimella, P. S.; MacDonald, R.; Cutting, A.; Rutks, I. R.; Monga, M.; Wilt, T. J. Diet, Fluid, or Supplements for Secondary Prevention of Nephrolithiasis: A Systematic Review and Meta - Analysis of Randomized Trials. Eur. Urol. 2009, 56 (1), 72 – 80.
Nasar, M.; Jabeen, A.; Raza, A.; Begum, M. Integrative Approaches to Hasaat Kuliya (Nephrolithiasis) in Unani and Conventional Medicine. Int. J. Clin. Med. Case Rep. 2025, 4 (1), DOI: 10.31579/2834 - 8664/063.
Prasanna, K.; Reddy, D. R. B.; Rao, T. J. M. A Comprehensive Review on Nephrolithiasis. Int. J. Pharm. Res. Appl. 2024, 9 (1), 1286 – 1294.
Li, J.; Kennedy, D.; Levine, M.; Kumar, A.; Mullen, J. Absent Hematuria and Expensive Computerized Tomography: Case Characteristics of Emergency Urolithiasis. J. Urol. 2001, 165, 782 – 784.
Fielding, J. R.; Steele, G.; Fox, L. A.; Heller, H.; Loughlin, K. R. Spiral Computerized Tomography in the Evaluation of Acute Flank Pain: A Replacement for Excretory Urography. J. Urol. 1997, 157, 2071 – 2073.
Katz, D. S.; Scheer, M.; Lumerman, J. H.; Mellinger, B. C.; Stillman, C. A.; Lane, M. J. Alternative or Additional Diagnoses on Unenhanced Helical Computed Tomography for Suspected Renal Colic: Experience With 1,000 Consecutive Examinations. Urology 2000, 56, 53 – 57.
Katz, D. S.; Lane, M. J.; Sommer, F. G. Unenhanced Helical CT of Ureteral Stones: Incidence of Associated Urinary Tract Findings. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 1996, 166, 1319 – 1322.
Gupta, N. P.; Ansari, M. S.; Kesarvani, P.; Kapoor, A.; Mukhopadhyay, S. Role of Computed Tomography With No Contrast Medium Enhancement in Predicting the Outcome of Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy for Urinary Calculi. BJU Int. 2005, 95, 1285 – 1288.
Fowler, K. A. B.; Locken, J. A.; Duchesne, J. H.; Williamson, M. R. US for Detecting Renal Calculi With Nonenhanced CT as a Reference Standard. Radiology 2002, 222, 109 – 113.
Levy, F. L.; Adams - Huet, B.; Pak, C. Y. Ambulatory Evaluation of Nephrolithiasis: An Update of a 1980 Protocol. Am. J. Med. 1995, 98, 50 – 59.
Parks, J. H.; Coe, F. L. A Urinary Calcium - Citrate Index for the Evaluation of Nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 1986, 30, 85 – 90.
Odvina, C. V.; Sakhaee, K.; Heller, H. J.; Peterson, R. D.; Poindexter, J. R.; Padalino, P. K.; Pak, C. Y. Biochemical Characterization of Primary Hyperparathyroidism With and Without Kidney Stones. Urol. Res. 2007, 35, 123 – 128.
Labrecque, M.; Dostaler, L. P.; Rousselle, R.; Nguyen, T.; Poirier, S. Efficacy of Nonsteroidal Anti - Inflammatory Drugs in the Treatment of Acute Renal Colic: A Meta - Analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. 1994, 154, 1381 – 1387.
Miller, O. F.; Kane, C. J. Time to Stone Passage for Observed Ureteral Calculi: A Guide for Patient Education. J. Urol. 1999, 162, 688 – 690.
Dellabella, M.; Milanese, G.; Muzzonigro, G. Randomized Trial of the Efficacy of Tamsulosin, Nifedipine, and Phloroglucinol in Medical Expulsive Therapy for Distal Ureteral Calculi. J. Urol. 2005, 174, 167 – 172.
Hollingsworth, J. M.; Rogers, M. A.; Kaufman, S. R.; Bradford, T. J.; Saint, S.; Wei, J. T.; Hollenbeck, B. K. Medical Therapy to Facilitate Urinary Stone Passage: A Meta - Analysis. Lancet 2006, 368, 1171 – 1179.
Borghi, L.; Meschi, T.; Amato, F.; Novarini, A.; Romanelli, A.; Cigala, F. Nifedipine and Methylprednisolone in Facilitating Ureteral Stone Passage: A Randomized, Double - Blind, Placebo - Controlled Study. J. Urol. 1994, 152, 1095 – 1098.
Clayman, R. V.; McDougall, E. M.; Nakada, S. Y. Endourology of the Upper Urinary Tract: Percutaneous Renal and Ureteral Procedures. In Campbell's Urology, 6th ed.; Walsh, P. C., Retik, A. B., Stamey, T. A., Vaughan, E. D., Eds.; W.B. Saunders: Philadelphia, PA, 1992; pp 2789 – 2821.
Lingeman, J. E.; Woods, J. R.; Toth, P. D. Blood Coagulation in Stone Patients: Effect of Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy. Urology 1994, 43, 559 – 566.
Samplaski, M. K.; Irwin, B. H.; Desai, M. Less - Invasive Ways to Remove Stones From the Kidneys and Ureters. Cleve. Clin. J. Med. 2009, 76, 592 – 598.
Grasso, M.; Ficazzola, M. Retrograde Ureteropyeloscopy for Lower Pole Caliceal Calculi. J. Urol. 1999, 162, 1904 – 1908.
Preminger, G. M.; Tiselius, H. G.; Assimos, D. G.; Alken, P.; Buck, C.; Gallucci, M.; Knoll, T.; Lingeman, J. E.; Nakada, S. Y.; Pearle, M. S.; Sarica, K.; Türk, C.; Wolf, J. S., Jr. 2007 Guideline for the Management of Ureteral Calculi. J. Urol. 2007, 178, 2418 – 2434.
Park, H.; Park, M.; Park, T. Two - Year Experience With Ureteroscopic Manipulation of Ureteral Stones. J. Endourol. 1998, 12, 501 – 504.
Segura, J. W.; Preminger, G. M.; Assimos, D. G.; Dretler, S. P.; Kahn, R. I.; Lingeman, J. E.; Macaluso, J. N., Jr. Ureteral Stones Clinical Guidelines Panel Summary Report on the Management of Ureteral Calculi. J. Urol. 1997, 158, 1915 – 1921.
Albala, D. M.; Assimos, D. G.; Clayman, R. V.; Denstedt, J. D.; Grasso, M.; Gutierrez - Aceves, J.; Kahn, R. I.; Leveillee, R. J.; Lingeman, J. E.; Macaluso, J. N., Jr.; Munch, L. C.; Nakada, S. Y.; Newman, R. C.; Pearle, M. S.; Preminger, G. M.; Teichman, J.; Woods, J. R. Lower Pole I: A Prospective Randomized Trial of Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy and Percutaneous Nephrostolithotomy for Lower Pole Nephrolithiasis — Initial Results. J. Urol. 2001, 166, 2072 – 2080.
Netto, N. R., Jr.; Claro, J. F.; Lemos, G. C.; Cortado, P. L. Renal Calculi in Lower Pole Calices: What Is the Best Method of Treatment? J. Urol. 1991, 146, 721 – 723.
Kuo, R. L.; Aslan, P.; Fitzgerald, K. B.; Preminger, G. M. Use of Ureteroscopy and Holmium:YAG Laser in Patients With Bleeding Diatheses. Urology 1998, 52, 609 – 613.
Borghi, L.; Meschi, T.; Maggiore, U.; Prati, B. Dietary Therapy in Idiopathic Nephrolithiasis. Nutr. Rev. 2006, 64, 301 – 312.
Fink, H. A.; Wilt, T. J.; Eidman, K. E.; Garimella, P. S.; MacDonald, R.; Rutks, I. R.; Brasure, M.; Kane, R. L.; Ouellette, J.; Monga, M. Medical Management to Prevent Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults: A Systematic Review for an American College of Physicians Clinical Guideline. Ann. Intern. Med. 2013, 158, 535 – 543.
Curhan, G. C.; Willett, W. C.; Rimm, E. B.; Stampfer, M. J. A Prospective Study of Dietary Calcium and Other Nutrients and the Risk of Symptomatic Kidney Stones. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 328, 833 – 838.
Curhan, G. C.; Willett, W. C.; Speizer, F. E.; Spiegelman, D.; Stampfer, M. J. Comparison of Dietary Calcium With Supplemental Calcium and Other Nutrients as Factors Affecting the Risk for Kidney Stones in Women. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997, 126, 497 – 504.
Nouvenne, A.; Meschi, T.; Prati, B.; Guerra, A.; Allegri, F.; Vezzoli, G.; Soldati, L.; Gambaro, G.; Maggiore, U.; Borghi, L. Effects of a Low - Salt Diet on Idiopathic Hypercalciuria in Calcium - Oxalate Stone Formers: A 3 - mo Randomized Controlled Trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91, 565 – 570.
Laerum, E.; Larsen, S. Thiazide Prophylaxis of Urolithiasis: A Double - Blind Study in General Practice. Acta Med. Scand. 1984, 215, 383 – 389.
Barcelo, P.; Wuhl, O.; Servitge, E.; Rousaud, A.; Pak, C. Y. Randomized Double - Blind Study of Potassium Citrate in Idiopathic Hypocitraturic Calcium Nephrolithiasis. J. Urol. 1993, 150, 1761 – 1764.
Ettinger, B.; Tang, A.; Citron, J. T.; Livermore, B.; Williams, T. Randomized Trial of Allopurinol in the Prevention of Calcium Oxalate Calculi. N. Engl. J. Med. 1986, 315, 1386 – 1389.
Streem, S. B.; Hall, P. Effect of Captopril on Urinary Cystine Excretion in Homozygous Cystinuria. J. Urol. 1989, 142, 1522 – 1524.
Perazella, M. A.; Buller, G. K. Successful Treatment of Cystinuria With Captopril. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 1993, 21, 504 – 507.
Eckel, R. H.; Grundy, S. M.; Zimmet, P. Z. The Metabolic Syndrome. Lancet 2005, 365 (9468), 1415 – 1428.
Wong, Y.; Cook, P.; Roderick, P.; Somani, B. K. Metabolic Syndrome and Kidney Stone Disease: A Systematic Review of Literature. J. Endourol. 2016, 30 (3), 246 – 253.
Sakhaee, K. Recent Advances in the Pathophysiology of Nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 2009, 75 (6), 585 – 595.
Sakhaee, K.; Maalouf, N. M.; Sinnott, B. Clinical Review: Kidney Stones 2012: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2012, 97 (6), 1847 – 1860.
Daudon, M.; Traxer, O.; Conort, P.; Lacour, B.; Jungers, P. Type 2 Diabetes Increases the Risk for Uric Acid Stones. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2006, 17, 2026 – 2033.
Maalouf, N. M.; Cameron, M. A.; Moe, O. W.; Adams - Huet, B.; Sakhaee, K. Low Urine pH: A Novel Feature of the Metabolic Syndrome. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007, 2, 883 – 888.
Obligado, S. H.; Goldfarb, D. S. The Association of Nephrolithiasis With Hypertension and Obesity: A Review. Am. J. Hypertens. 2008, 21, 257 – 264.
Taylor, E. N.; Curhan, G. C. Differences in 24 - Hour Urine Composition Between Black and White Women. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007, 18, 654 – 659.
West, B.; Luke, A.; Durazo - Arvizu, R. A.; Cao, G.; Shoham, D.; Kramer, H. Metabolic Syndrome and Self - Reported History of Kidney Stones: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) 1988 – 1994. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2008, 51 (5), 741 – 747.
Taylor, E. N.; Stampfer, M. J.; Curhan, G. C. Diabetes Mellitus and the Risk of Nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 2005, 68, 1230 – 1235.
Madore, F.; Stampfer, M. J.; Rimm, E. B.; Curhan, G. C. Nephrolithiasis and Risk of Hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 1998, 11 (1), 46 – 53.
Abdulla, A.; Das, S.; Venugopalan, A. V.; Rajeevan, A. T.; Manikandan, M. The Correlation Between Metabolic Syndrome and Calcium Urolithiasis. Int. Surg. J. 2023, 10 (9), 1477 – 1483.
Rule, A. D.; Bergstralh, E. J.; Melton, L. J., III; Li, X.; Weaver, A. L.; Lieske, J. C. Kidney Stones and the Risk for Chronic Kidney Disease. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 4, 804 – 811.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2026 S. B. Bothra, Shahajan Shabbir Baig, Barrawaz Aateka Yahya
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Journal of Innovations in Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Based on a work at